Colonial Perspectives on National Identity in Ukrainian-Soviet Animation (1960–1990)
by Olesia Tymoshenko
As a child in Ukraine, like many others, I was raised on Soviet cartoons that were widely broadcast. Some were in Ukrainian, reflecting our traditions, and no one questioned their portrayal.
However, after Russia's full-scale invasion, I began to rethink the Soviet legacy and the depiction of Ukrainians in Soviet animation.
During the heyday of Ukrainian Soviet animation from the 1960s to the 1980s, cartoons ostensibly based on folktales were subtly altered to convey messages aligned with Soviet ideology. National minorities within the Soviet Union, including Ukrainians, were often depicted in ways that reinforced their perceived backwardness and the necessity of Russian guidance. Ukrainians, for example, were portrayed as quaint peasants who could sing in Ukrainian but spoke Russian. These folktale-based cartoons were set in indeterminate periods, roughly corresponding to the 17th or 18th century, and depicted Ukrainians as simple laborers, primarily farmers, adorned in traditional colorful clothing, often engaged in drinking. This portrayal aligned with the Soviet agenda, which allowed Ukrainian identity to exist only in a non-threatening form to Homo-Sovieticus. Women were depicted as strong household leaders, while men were shown as Cossacks or idlers. This article explores the tropes of identity in Ukrainian-Soviet animation, using examples such as Mariya Bohuslavka (Маруся Богуславка). Directed by Nina Vasylenko. Kyivnaukfilm, 1966, There Once Was a Dog (Жив-був пес). Directed by Eduard Nazarov. Soyuzmultfilm, 1982, How the Women Sold Their Men (Як Жінки чоловіків продавали). Directed by Iryna Gurvych. Kyivnaukfilm, 1972, How the Cossacks... series (Як Козаки). Directed by Volodymyr Dakhno. Kyivnaukfilm, 1967-1995
In 1959, Ukrainian animation experienced a revival with the establishment of an animation studio within "Kyivnaukfilm." At that time, Moscow already had a well-established system for producing animated films, with the "Soyuzmultfilm" studio having been created in 1936. The Soviet authorities did not scrutinize animation as closely as live-action cinema, likely due to the stereotype of it being "children's art" or "cartoons," allowing for greater creative freedom. This resulted in more liberty in terms of visual experimentation. While live-action films were closely monitored for "formalism" (for example, the animosity towards Parajanov), animation allowed for free experimentation with form and the development of new modes of expression.
During the 1960s and 1970s, national-cultural issues became part of the activities of political figures like P. Shelest and V. Shcherbytsky, First Secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPU from 1963 to 1972 and 1972 to 1989, respectively. Shelest persistently developed the socio-cultural sphere of Ukraine and opposed the ideologization and russification of Ukrainian cultural life. The 1960s-1970s saw a surge in animation with a national theme. During the "thaw" period, artists had the opportunity to engage with national culture—though, of course, this was limited. This was partly due to the fact that "folk culture" was considered one of the pillars of Soviet culture. Since it was associated with folklore, the popularization of national art in animation involved adaptations of folk songs, fairy tales, or stories. Artists who recognized the significance of such productions approached their creations with due care: films by Nina Vasylenko, Volodymyr Dakhno, Boris Khranevych, and other masters appeared on screens.
Bravery and Sacrifice.
Mariya Bohuslavka (Маруся Богуславка). Directed by Nina Vasylenko. Kyivnaukfilm, 1966.
Marusya Bohuslavka is a legendary Ukrainian character of the 16th century who, after being captured and taken into Turkish slavery, ends up in the Sultan's harem. She gains the Sultan's trust to such an extent that she manages to steal the keys to the prison where Ukrainian Cossacks are held captive, ultimately freeing them. The film begins with a group of Cossacks leaving their village, followed by the introduction of the main character, Marusya, who is depicted as stereotypically beautiful, carrying water around the village as part of her daily routine. Suddenly, Turkish invaders attack Marusya's village, burning it and taking hostages to the Ottoman Empire. The narrator sings about the Turkish land, the Muslim religion, and the plight of the hostages who despise their captivity. The palace is portrayed as a place of hedonistic indulgence. The Sultan attempts to seduce Marusya, but she rejects his advances and is consequently sent to prison.
Meanwhile, Cossacks at the Sich prepare to rescue the Ukrainian captives but are captured by the Turks due to a sea storm. Marusya devises a plan to liberate the Ukrainians. She decides to seduce the Sultan and plays the role of his Turkish wife. As the Sultan falls asleep, Marusya opens the cage holding the Cossacks, freeing them. As they escape, the Turks fight back. Marusya sacrifices her own life to protect them. This film is a great example of how Ukrainian heroes can fight against enemies if they are not Russian. Although all narration is in Ukrainian opera singing, the character never speaks, making Ukrainian a language only for singing.
Loyalty and Friendship
There Once Was a Dog (Жив-був пес). Directed by Eduard Nazarov. Soyuzmultfilm, 1982.
Ukrainian folklore themes are evident not only in cartoons produced in Ukraine but also in Russian animated features. For instance, in 1982, Eduard Nazarov produced the well-known *There Once Was a Dog (Zhyl-byl pes)*, which notes in its opening scene that it is based on a Ukrainian folktale. The narrative centers on a peasant family with an old and useless dog. Despite the dog's increasing clumsiness and the accidents it causes, the family keeps it until it allows a thief to steal all their belongings, prompting them to finally kick the dog out.
In the forest, the dog encounters a wolf, whose portrayal as a loyal friend and neighbor is notable. Metaphorically, the dog represents Ukraine, depicted as needing assistance and supervision, while the wolf symbolizes Russia, an independent alpha capable of self-sufficiency and aiding others. The story of the dog and the wolf is an international tale type, but what makes this version distinctly Ukrainian and, in this case, Soviet? Firstly, the use of Ukrainian bucolic stereotypes is prominent. The family, although not deeply individualized, plays a crucial role in the narrative. Despite the human characters never speaking, a narrator provides context and describes the events, accompanied by folk songs. They sing frequently, and when they do, they sing in Ukrainian. This is striking because the entire cartoon is voiced in Russian, isolating singing as an ethnic trait. Additionally, the cartoon portrays Ukrainians as colorful peasants and emphasizes neighborliness and cooperation—traits highly valued among all nationalities of the USSR.
Feminism as a Foundation of Sisterhood
How Women Sold Their Husbands, 1972. Directed by Iryna Gurvych.
At the beginning of the movie, there is an explanation in Russian that the story is an adaptation of the humorous Ukrainian folk song "How Women Sold Their Husbands" (1972). The song's lyrics (which serve as the soundtrack) narrate the story of women selling their husbands: one wants to get rid of a womanizer, another an old man, a third a clumsy son, a fourth a lazy man, and a fifth a drunkard. The act of selling their husbands can be interpreted as a form of agency and empowerment for the women. They take the initiative to change their unsatisfactory situations, which contrasts with the typical portrayal of passive female characters in the media of that era. The film highlights the dissatisfaction of women with their domestic lives and their husbands' shortcomings. This reflects broader social issues regarding the expectations and realities of marriage and gender roles in Soviet society. Using humor and satire, the film subtly critiques the status quo. By exaggerating the flaws of the husbands and the women's responses, it provides commentary on the absurdity of traditional gender expectations. There is no narration in the film, only singing.
Adventure and Fun
How the Cossacks... series (Як Козаки). Directed by Volodymyr Dakhno. Kyivnaukfilm, 1967-1995.
In Ukrainian folklore, the Cossacks (kozaky) are the mighty warrior heroes of oral epic poetry. The cartoon series portrays kozaky as male characters with specific hairstyles and red sharovars. However, they are not depicted as warriors defending the Ukrainian land but rather as fun, clever individuals who try to avoid trouble. This series incorporates the national aspect of folk songs and navigates the issue of Ukrainian versus Russian language by having all characters remain silent, with jaunty folk music accompanying the action.
The cartoon escaped censorship because the characters are childlike figures in stories for children. While the cartoon cosacks may appeal to children as their equals, they do not function like the cosacks of traditional lore, failing to offer models of competent Ukrainian adulthood to which children might aspire. The series largely avoids the historical conflicts between Ukrainians and Russians, especially the Cossack uprisings against Russian rule. By focusing on non-political adventures, it avoids depicting the Cossacks as a symbol of Ukrainian resistance.
The portrayal of Ukrainians in Soviet animation reveals the deep-seated colonial dynamics at play within the USSR. These cartoons often reduced Ukrainian identity to simplistic stereotypes, reinforcing the image of Ukrainians as quaint, rural, and backward. Through these portrayals, Soviet authorities allowed Ukrainian cultural expression to exist only in a form that posed no threat to the Soviet identity. Ukrainian language use was also relegated to specific roles—particularly singing—while characters often spoke Russian, emphasizing the subordinate status of Ukrainian in the broader Soviet linguistic hierarchy. This portrayal of Ukrainians as peasants who could sing but not speak their own language reflects the broader Soviet policy of russification and the marginalization of national cultures within the Union.
Despite the creativity that flourished in Soviet animation, particularly in Ukrainian studios, the depictions of national identity remained tethered to these colonial frameworks. The folk motifs, vibrant costumes, and rural settings were appropriated and shaped to fit the Soviet vision, offering a sanitized and controllable version of Ukrainian culture. These cartoons served not only as entertainment but also as a vehicle for the dissemination of Soviet ideology, embedding colonial perceptions of identity into the fabric of popular culture.